In recent years, the academic landscape of International Relations has been marked by a growing interest in civil resistance.  While much of the focus has been on challenging authoritarian regimes, scholars are expanding their attention to include resistance against non-state violence, such as insurgencies, civil war actors, and organised crime.  This is where my recent book comes in.

In it, I delve into a case of civil resistance against a terrorist organisation, the militant separatist group ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna).  ETA’s armed struggle in pursuit of an independent Basque Country caused over 800 deaths and left more than 2,300 people injured.  It stands as one of the longest-running violent campaigns in Western Europe, even outlasting the IRA by two decades before disbanding in 2018.

In my book, I argue that collective action played a pivotal role in diminishing ETA's influence as both a political and military force.  By ‘collective action’ I mean the activism of the peace movement that emerged in the 1980s and the mobilisation by civic and victims organisations that joined them in the late 1990s.  These groups challenged the prevailing narratives around violence, fostering a culture of peace and human and political rights, and undermining ETA’s support within society.

The roots of this civil response can be traced back to the mid-1980s, when the peace movement began mobilising against political violence in the Basque Country.  Activists protested not only ETA’s attacks but also the state’s illegitimate use of violence, including police abuses, the use of torture, and terrorist activity by the GAL, a shadowy network controlled by state officials that targeted radical nationalists during the 1980s.  

As the peace movement gained momentum, it became increasingly visible in society.  Groups like Gesto por la Paz emerged as key players, promoting values such as tolerance, peace, and human rights.  They adopted traditional forms of social mobilisation—marches, rallies, demonstrations, sit-ins…—to demonstrate that widespread opposition to ETA existed within society.  In doing so, they reclaimed public spaces that had previously been dominated by ETA's political movement, the Izquierda Abertzale. By promoting alternative narratives in public, these activists challenged the control the Izquierda Abertzale once had over political discourse in the streets.  Alongside local political parties, journalists, and intellectuals, they played a significant role in shifting public opinion, making the rejection of ETA the socially acceptable norm.

A turning point occurred in July 1997 after the tragic kidnapping and murder of Miguel Ángel Blanco, a young local councillor from the small Basque industrial town of Ermua.  Public grief and anger ignited unparalleled mobilisation across the Basque Country, climaxing in the largest demonstration ever recorded in the region, which brought together half a million people on the streets of Bilbao, its largest city.  This huge wave of mobilisation, termed the ‘Espíritu de Ermua,’ set a precedent for activism that extended beyond merely opposing violence.  In the minds of some Basque activists, academics, and intellectuals, it crystallised the necessity to develop a clear political discourse against ETA’s political project, leading to the formation of various civil society groups collectively known as the civic movement.

Organisations like Foro Ermua and Basta Ya, along with victims' groups such as Covite, worked tirelessly to dismantle in their work the historical myths perpetuated by the Izquierda Abertzale.  In the face of suffocating violent repression by ETA and other abertzale organisations, they created a new discourse that discredited radical nationalism and its polarising effects on society, and advocated for political freedoms, liberal democratic rights, pluralism, and nonviolence.

One separate group worth highlighting is Elkarri, established in 1992 to focus on conflict resolution and mediation.  Throughout its existence, Elkarri sought to engage Basque political parties, including the Izquierda Abertzale’s, to foster a broad political agreement aimed at resolving the conflict.  Their efforts played a significant role in building essential bridges and facilitating political dialogue.

Yet, what sets Elkarri apart is that, despite developing a diverse membership over time, its roots were planted in the Izquierda Abertzale itself.  As former insiders, they attracted those at the periphery of the movement who supported the Izquierda Abertzale’s political goal of an independent Basque state, but rejected the use of armed struggle.  By bringing these dissenters together, Elkarri helped reduce support for violence within radical nationalism.

This credibility with the abertzale base explains why Lokarri, Elkarri’s successor, was later able to work as a broker, connecting local and international actors, and assisting the internal debate within the Izquierda Abertzale that eventually led to their renunciation of violence in the 2010s.  

The story of civil resistance against ETA illustrates the transformative power of collective action in countering violent extremism.  It reminds us that, in the face of adversity, the efforts of engaged citizens—especially when supported by other local political actors—can enhance community resilience against narratives of violence and reduce the influence of militant organisations.

As we reflect on these lessons from the Basque Country, it becomes evident that civil action is not just a response to state repression or violent conflict; it can also help reshape societal values and inspire new paths toward peace and reconciliation.

To find out more about the new book Resisting Terror: Civil Action and Non-Violent Resistance to Terrorism in Basque Country (Oxford University Press, 2025) click here.

 

Dr Javier Argomaniz

Javier Argomaniz is a Senior Lecturer at the University of St Andrews Handa Centre for the Study of Terrorism and Political Violence (CSTPV), where he has published widely on the subject of state, non-state and civilian responses to political violence.  His work has been published in Terrorism and Political Violence, Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, Cooperation and Conflict, Intelligence and National Security and a number of other peer-reviewed journals.  He has co-directed two separate international and multi-disciplinary projects funded by the EU on the needs of victims of terrorism and the role of victims in the prevention of conflict.